The handbook marked a departure from past standards of monitoring, which concentrated on biophysical achievements and relied on indicators such as number of trees planted and the percentage of seedlings that survived. Instead, the guide recognized the importance of the development of forest communities and provided tools for workers to assess the social dimensions of their efforts. Examples of questions in the handbook include:

• ■ What apprehensions did the participants manifest in participating in project activities? How and by whom were their apprehensions responded to? What were the results?

• ■ What selection criteria were used [for project participants]? Who were the core group members selected? Cite information about their background and character traits.

• ■ What tenurial problems do participating families experience? How have they managed such problems?

• ■ Who were formally elected or appointed to leadership positions in the community? What functions do they undertake? On what basis or under what circumstances were they chosen?

In recognition of the need to mesh social and technical understanding in the forestry sector, social science theory and methodologies have been incorporated into the curriculum of formal forestry degree programs in several South and Southeast Asian countries. For example, the Ateneo de Manila's Institute of Philippines Culture and its Sociology and Anthropology Department jointly offered a master's program designed to develop a cadre of individuals skilled in promoting community management of natural resources. The program grew out of the institute's extensive experience in social forestry and irrigation management, in which institute staff had developed skills in helping bureaucracies become more supportive of community-based programs. The institute developed a planning tool for assessing both the social and the technical dimensions of communities that were candidates for government assistance, applied participatory rural appraisal techniques to community-level planning, and introduced process documentation research. It also helped develop for government and nongovernment personnel training courses and manuals that incorporated participatory methods. The two-year master's program was opened to Southeast Asian students in 1986 and by 1993 had graduated 35 students from Indonesia, the